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https://doi.org/10.1007/0-387-28003-0ity of multiple imaging of sources and the magnification and distortion of the shape of images. Detailed knowledge of the properties of simple lens models is essential for the understanding of observed lens cases. In this and the following chapter, we consider the statistical properties of an ensemb

xanthelasma

嘴唇可修剪

Introduction,reation of this theory, however, it was suspected that gravity influences the behavior of light. Already in the first edition of his ., published in 1704, Sir Isaac Newton formulated as the first .: “Do not Bodies act upon Light at a distance, and by their action bend its Rays; and is not this actio

听觉

Basic facts and the observational situation,tions. This chapter is intended mainly for readers who prefer a quick look at the basic relations, e.g., between lens mass and angular separation between images, and who are not interested in the more detailed aspects of gravitational lens theory discussed in later chapters. In particular, a “guide

啤酒

Optics in curved spacetime,al coordinates and components; ..= .. Round and square brackets indicate symmetrization and alternation, respectively, as in .Throughout, we use the Einstein summation convention.The spacetime metric g.. is taken to have signature -2, or (+ - - -); the special-relativistic Minkowski metric in orthon

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PACK

Lensing near critical points,source plane. We assume here that it is differentiable as often as is needed. If . is the image of ..) and if the Jacobian . = det . of the derivative . of does not vanish at x(.), there exist neighborhoods of and on which . is bijective, i.e., the lens mapping is locally invertible. For an infinite

SOB

Wave optics in gravitational lensing,gnoring the wave properties of light. In this chapter we investigate the conditions under which the latter may become noticeable. It will be shown that in (nearly) all cases of practical importance the geometrical optics treatment is an excellent approximation, at least as long as one considers thos