Titlebook: Vertebrate Flight; Mechanics, Physiolog Ulla M. Norberg Book 1990 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 1990 Biomechanik.Verhalten.Vogelflug.Wi

航海太平洋

intricacy

Basic Aerodynamics,act science. It contains approximations, simplifications, and empirical coefficients, and the picture is complicated for a flapping wing, in which angles, velocities, and shape change instantaneously. Therefore, animal flight is complicated, but can be understood by the application of theories of ai

affinity

Physiology of Flight,quired to fly, that is, the power output, which also is treated for different flight modes in Chapters 8 and 9. A large part of the metabolic rate appears as heat production in the body. The actual, metabolic, energy cost of flight (chemical power output) depends on the mechanical power requirement

协定

南极

Gliding Flight,es BMR (Baudinette and Schmidt-Nielsen 1974), for the flight muscles do not perform any mechanical work but produce only static forces to keep the wings down on the horizontal plane, opposing the aerodynamic force. The gliding performance, aerodynamics, and stability and control of movements will be

危机

Soaring,ential (height gain) or kinetic (speed gain) energy. Soaring birds usually glide using vertical and horizontal air movements, and they use only additional muscular energy to correct position and to hold the wings down in the horizontal position. Many large birds use soaring when searching for food,

缓和

Anthem

GEN

Forward Flight,velocity to the resultant relative velocity decreases. In other words, as the value of the . parameter (the ratio of flapping velocity to the forward speed) decreases, so do the unsteady aerodynamic effects. Therefore, slow forward flight is best understood with vortex theory, whereas fast flight ma

VERT

Scaling, different mechanical, physiological and ecological constraints change in importance with size and wing morphology. Allometry can also be used to obtain a general norm for a morphological or physiological variable for a group of animals allowing the identification of deviations from the norm that ma