Titlebook: Referendums Around the World; With a Foreword by S Matt Qvortrup Book 20182nd edition The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2018

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Western Europe, in 2016, is a case in point, and is widely seen as a rebuke to the governing elite. Generally, however, voters in Western Europe have voted with the government. The chapter shows that the electorate have tended to vote against the government if the incumbent has been in office for a long time. Ther

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Switzerland,evelopment led to a decision to put constitutional changes to popular votes, which created a precedent for public participation. Unlike any other democracy in the world, the Swiss voters go to the polls several times every year. Contrary to the perception in the international press, many votes have

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Russia, the Former Soviet Union and Eastern Europe,c. Emerging democracies then used the referendum to ratify independence, to endorse constitutions and fundamental decisions, and later to sanction European Union and NATO membership. Increasingly, it has been deployed to entrench authoritarian rule and to modify boundaries that gained new significan

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Latin America,s had—and continues to have—a strong record of direct democratic participation, other states have increasingly used referendums to strengthen populist leaders like Venezuela’s late leader Hugo Cháves who have used plebiscites to strengthen his control.

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North America and the Caribbean,the 1970s, when it began to increase—often due to efforts by wealthy individuals. Overall, direct democracy has not been for sale and there is no evidence that special interest groups have been able to ‘buy’ the results. The chapter also presents an overview of the experiences with referendums in the Caribbean and Canada.