| 书目名称 | History of Meteorology | | 编辑 | Mladjen Ćurić,Vlado Spiridonov | | 视频video | | | 概述 | Discusses the history of quantitative meteorology and the invention of basic meteorological instruments.Covers the early Earth atmosphere to address climate developments over time.Synthesizes the esta | | 图书封面 |  | | 描述 | .This book provides a detailed history of meteorology as a natural science, from an understanding of the Earth‘s early atmosphere to present-day advancements. In three parts, the book synthesizes developments in quantitative meteorology starting from its very early stages and progressively covers the invention of basic meteorology instruments while highlighting the various turning points and key figures who played roles along the way. The first part addresses the treatment of meteorology during early civilization. Part two goes into the early development of meteorology as a science. Part three covers the science‘s rapid progression and present-day status while addressing the primary technologies and methodologies used in a variety of areas like weather forecasting, remote sensing, and radar instrumentation. The target audience for the book is students and researchers interested in the history of meteorology as a science, and also general enthusiasts of the subject who have some background on the topic.. | | 出版日期 | Book 2023 | | 关键词 | Clouds and precipitation; Meteorology; Climate studies; Atmospheric instrumentation; Cyclones; Weather fo | | 版次 | 1 | | doi | https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-45032-7 | | isbn_softcover | 978-3-031-45034-1 | | isbn_ebook | 978-3-031-45032-7 | | copyright | The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerl |
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Front Matter |
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Abstract
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,The Earliest Past of the Earth and the Atmosphere, |
Mladjen Ćurić,Vlado Spiridonov |
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Abstract
Scientists are constantly improving their understanding of the Earth’s geological history. According to the latest theory of tectonic plates, geophysicists view the land of our planet as a dynamic, pulsating, “living body” that has changed in the past. Continents moved, oceans rose and fell, mountain ranges formed and eroded, and the composition of the atmosphere fluctuated. These changes led to strong climatic variations that played a key role in the development and extinction of various forms of life on Earth..Parts of that plate are our continents, whose forms are not well known today. As they move, the plates collide, join, and separate again. As a result, volcanoes, earthquakes, and the most eruptive (and restless) phenomenon of all—the ice age—appear. The ice age leads to global consequences with a strong influence on the entire living world on the planet. During the past 3.5 billion years, climate changes caused the complete or partial destruction of flora and fauna on Earth. About 65 million years ago, the huge land mass of Siberia, North America, and Antarctica moved toward the pole. The Earth has a smaller heat capacity (it can hold less heat) than the ocean. The formed s
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,Brief General Historical Overview, |
Mladjen Ćurić,Vlado Spiridonov |
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Abstract
In accordance with the chosen concept of revealing first the most important factors that enabled the development of science, the climate (without professional bias) certainly deserves the first place. Because, wherever and whenever the development of the living world began, it was decisively determined by climatic factors. The development and improvement of man and his skills are significantly directed by the hand of the climate. Despite the difficulties, scientific methods broke through and shed light on the deep darkness of the past. Climatic movements of long past times have been reconstructed. According to astronomical theories, first the scientist Milutin Milanković, through the analysis of fossil remains and other geological methods, it was established that there were alternating ice ages on Earth..The ice sheet began to retreat about 14,000 years ago. The period of early antiquity lasts from the earliest times to the middle of the sixth-century BC. In that early period, the man was long deprived of the simple art of stone carving. After he conquered it, the development of civilization was much faster. In the later Paleolithic age (the age of rough stone working, which lasted
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,Early Development of Meteorology, |
Mladjen Ćurić,Vlado Spiridonov |
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Abstract
As with other sciences, it is not possible to find the exact beginning of meteorology. In this case, it must be considered when talking about meteorology as a science and when talking about meteorology as a field of knowledge. Meteorology as a scientific discipline is younger than meteorology as a field of knowledge, whose beginnings go back to the distant past of human civilization. The first great ancient civilizations developed around the major rivers of Africa and Asia: the Nile in Africa, the Tigris and Euphrates in West Asia, the Indus and Ganges in Central Asia, and the Huangpu and Yangtze in East Asia..As far back as 3500 BC, the ancient Egyptians had religious practices related to the sky, in the form of rituals to invoke rain. All ancient religions believed that atmospheric processes were under the control of the gods..The Babylonian civilization developed around the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers 3000–300 BC. In the absence of suitable plants, such as those used by the Egyptians to make writing paper, the Babylonians used clay tablets. Various interesting inscriptions are written on such tablets. From those plates, it was possible to read that meteorology is an important pa
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,Beginnings of Quantitative Meteorology, |
Mladjen Ćurić,Vlado Spiridonov |
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Abstract
By the end of the sixteenth century, meteorology was based on the thinking of naturalists such as Aristotle. Attitudes about meteorological phenomena were mainly the result of reflections and visual observations. Then it became quite clear that some considerations were wrong, due to the lack of sufficient data about the atmosphere. Descartes himself saw the growing need for knowledge about the atmosphere. He is a leader in efforts to collect quality meteorological knowledge. To do that, in addition to visual observations, it was necessary to have meteorological instruments. Fortunately, this shortcoming was quickly compensated..In the seventeenth century, three basic instruments were found in meteorology: a thermometer, barometer, and hygrometer. About the invention of the first two instruments, the famous English meteorologist Sir Naper Shaw (1854–1945) said: “The invention of the barometer and the thermometer marked the birth of serious research into the physics of the atmosphere, quantitative studies. Without them, it was impossible to form an accurate conception of their structure.”.The air temperature data were immediately interpreted in the right way, while the air pressure d
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,Beginnings of Meteorological Measurements and Observations, |
Mladjen Ćurić,Vlado Spiridonov |
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Abstract
With the invention of basic meteorological instruments, quantitative measurements began. This contributed to significant progress in the development of meteorology in the seventeenth century, compared to the previous period in which only visual meteorological observations were made. In that instrumental period, we distinguished two phases of development. The first phase is related to measurements carried out individually, in certain places, without any mutual communication. The second phase is related to coordinated measurements in several places. This is the phase of establishing a meteorological measurement network of stations..However, the first step in collecting meteorological data is the data obtained by observing the weather. The observations undoubtedly date back to the very beginnings of civilization. But those systematic and carefully conducted observations come from the ancient Greeks, from the fifth century BC. Ancient weather observations were mainly related to the description of the sky (cloudy, rainy, clear, etc.), wind direction, warm, cold, etc..Roman historians devoted considerable space to atmospheric phenomena in their annals. Those records were more complete th
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,Establishment of Meteorological Institutes (Services), |
Mladjen Ćurić,Vlado Spiridonov |
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Abstract
At the end of the eighteenth century, it was quite clear that an international meteorological network of stations had to be established. The initial practical efforts in this direction were made by the company “Academia del Cimento.” Later, there were attempts by Hooke, Judin, and Dalembert. The Privileged Meteorological Society of Mannheim has the farthest and best-realized idea of a worldwide meteorological network. Unfortunately, despite the perfect organization, that project did not last more than ten years either. The only way to meet the need to establish a worldwide network of meteorological stations was to establish a network in individual countries. Their unification took place only in the middle of the nineteenth century..The establishment of meteorological networks was entrusted to scientific institutions and services. Apart from conducting measurements, they were also responsible for developing knowledge in meteorology. This chapter traces the development and establishment of meteorological services by describing the activities in some of the most important countries, considering the administrative division of the world.
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,Establishment of Weather Forecast Services, |
Mladjen Ćurić,Vlado Spiridonov |
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Abstract
Weather forecasts have been of interest to people in various historical periods. The need for a forecast based on scientific foundations was emphasized by two great scientists in the eighteenth century, Lomonosov and Lavoisier. The first attempt to overcome the initial shortcomings was made by Leverier (1811–1877), director of the Paris Observatory. In England, Admiral FitzRoy was active in the establishment of the Meteorological Service, within the Meteorological Department of the Ministry of Commerce, of which he was the first head..The establishment of a weather service also began in many countries around the world, but initially in Holland, in 1859, with the adoption of a special law passed by the Dutch Government for the collection of telegraphic data and the telegraphic transmission of weather information. In France, unlike the tragic stagnation in England, the weather forecast takes on meaning. The meeting Leverrier had with Napoleon III in 1863 in Biarritz contributed to this. From the middle of that year, with Napoleon‘s approval, the observatory began issuing regular weather forecasts. The weather service in Russia began publishing daily weather bulletins in 1872. The wea
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,Exploring the Free Atmosphere, |
Mladjen Ćurić,Vlado Spiridonov |
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Abstract
Travelers have long known that clouds, fog, and cold winds appear in mountainous areas. The shepherds who grazed their flocks in the high mountains in summer also knew very well the difference in climate between the highlands and the lowlands. These differences began to be interpreted using scientific methods only in the eighteenth century..The famous Russian scientist Lomonosov wrote in 1753 that “there is a difference in density and heating between the air at ground level and at height.” It was clear to him that the upper parts of the atmosphere are less heated by the Sun than the lower, near-surface air. The detailed characteristics of mountainous areas were particularly well studied by the famous Swiss naturalist Saussure (1740–1799). Besides the Alps, he also visited other mountains. In 1772, he climbed Vesuvius and in 1783 Etna. On his mountain tours, he always made numerous meteorological measurements. Thus, on August 3, 1787, Saussure climbed Mont Blanc, the highest peak in Europe (4810 m). Only one man before him climbed that inaccessible snowy peak. He made numerous measurements along the way. Among other things, he discovered that there is a lot of carbon dioxide in the
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,Early Theories About Cyclones and Anticyclones, |
Mladjen Ćurić,Vlado Spiridonov |
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Abstract
The first barometer measurements showed that air pressure is constantly changing. Experience has been gained in the relationship between strong winds and barometric conditions. Thanks to this, Otto von Guerick, the mayor of Magdeburg, became famous for announcing the arrival of a storm on December 9, 1660, based on his water barometer. The storm did appear 2 h after his announcement. For almost two centuries, the barometric state of a place has been used for weather forecasting. However, it was noted that the pressure field must be available over a wider area..But before cyclones were viewed through measured data, there were many beautiful descriptions of storms and cyclone weather. As early as the ninth century, Arab travelers to China noted the devastating effects of typhoons in the Far East. Later, in the fifteenth century, European navigators (primarily Columbus and Vasco da Gama) described an encounter with a tropical storm—a hurricane. The word “hurricane” itself means strong wind. In the Mayan language, it is said “huran—vukan” and in Spanish “huracan.” Columbus managed to predict the arrival of a hurricane over the island of Haiti in 1502 using his long experience as a navi
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,Recognition of Forces in the Atmosphere, |
Mladjen Ćurić,Vlado Spiridonov |
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Abstract
In the second half of the nineteenth century, forces were considered in theories of storm formation. Therefore, it is necessary to give a brief overview of the contribution of scientists to this issue..Even in ancient times, thinkers tried to figure out what caused the wind. Then the Greeks believed that the wind blows from the cave where the god Aeolus (Αιολοζ) lives. An altar was erected in Zion to pray to the winds. A special fortress was built in Delphi in honor of the wind. The stormy north wind Tempest, represented in the form of a dark bird, faithfully guarded Athena. His friendly appearance destroyed part of the Persian fleet of the ruler of Xerox at Cape Sepia. In honor of Bura, an altar was built on the Ilisos embankment. According to Aristotle, any movement that does not naturally occur under the influence of a force is a moving factor. These opinions have not changed for over a thousand years. In the Middle Ages, there were still those who believed that the wind was caused by the flapping of angelic wings..Galileo understood that the speed of a body does not change if external factors of acceleration or deceleration are excluded. So, he knew that acceleration is proport
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,Later Theories of Cyclones and Anticyclones, |
Mladjen Ćurić,Vlado Spiridonov |
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Abstract
Dove’s theory of cyclone origin and the weather characteristics associated with cyclonic activity was widely accepted around the mid-nineteenth century. Despite this, it was immediately said that the proposed theory was primitive and unsatisfactory..In the second half of the nineteenth century, the convective theory of cyclones was popular. It was introduced by Espy and later popularized by Ferrell. Thus, in 1856, Ferrell wrote: “…Hurricanes are said to be produced by the collision of two opposing currents, which produces a rotation (spin) moment of air about the point of collision… It is very probable that they receive their initial impulses this way… Obviously, hurricanes and ordinary storms can form and intensify under the influence of some acting forces. Then when these forces disappear, the force of friction returns the atmosphere to a state of rest.”.Ferrell further argued that the forces can be created by the condensation of water vapor, which lifts the air to the central region of the hurricane. This updraft causes the air inside it to become thinner, which causes ambient air inflow. Under the influence of the (Coriolis force) deflection force because of the Earth’s rotatio
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,Atmospheric Motion, |
Mladjen Ćurić,Vlado Spiridonov |
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Abstract
Wind, whether it occurs on a local scale or spans vast regions, arises from the natural inclination to balance temperature and pressure differentials induced by varying solar heating across different areas of the Earth. Hence, a variety of forces come into play to set the air in motion. The observation of air movement dates back to various historical periods, but it was not until the eighteenth century that British scientist George Hadley (1686–1768) made significant strides in comprehending and describing this phenomenon. However, even Hadley fell short of fully grasping the intricate relationship between global air movement and the Earth’s rotation. As air strives to equalize pressure disparities by moving from areas of high to low pressure, the Earth’s rotation compels it to alter its trajectory by a certain degree. It was not until 1835 that French scientist Gustave Gaspar Coriolis elucidated the magnitude and dependence of this deviation, providing a comprehensive theory of relative motion. Subsequently, in 1836, this theory found practical application, primarily through the work of Poisson, in understanding motions observed relative to the Earth. Local air movements, such as
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,Bergen Synoptic School, |
Mladjen Ćurić,Vlado Spiridonov |
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Abstract
During the late nineteenth century, remarkable advancements were achieved in the field of atmospheric measurement systems, particularly through the implementation of direct aerological sounding techniques. Subsequently, starting from 1900, these measurements have been conducted consistently under the auspices of the International Aerological Commission. Concurrently, significant progress was also made in theoretical hydrodynamics, marking a new era in the evolution of theoretical meteorology. One of the notable pioneers in this domain was Wilhelm Freeman Bjerknes (1862–1951), who revolutionized the field with his renowned circulation theorem. In April 1897, Wilhelm Freeman Bjerknes discussed the circulation theorem with his students during theoretical physics classes at the University of Stockholm. He later published a preliminary version of the theorem in 1898, followed by its complete form in 1902. Notably, in 1896, Silberstein had already published one of the two circulation theorems in Krakow. However, Silberstein regarded the baroclinic state merely as a transitional phase, without delving into its practical implementation. In contrast, Bjerknes emphasized the application of t
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,Clouds and Precipitation, |
Mladjen Ćurić,Vlado Spiridonov |
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Abstract
Since ancient times, various theories have emerged attempting to explain the origins of clouds and precipitation. However, during those early periods, these ideas were more akin to speculations rather than well-developed theories. The emergence of genuine theories on clouds and precipitation, defined as attempts to elucidate the transition from suspended water vapor to the formation of raindrops or snowflakes, can be traced back to the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. In 1637, Descartes proposed that raindrops are formed by the merging of smaller droplets. The prevailing belief regarding the coalescence of droplets suggested that it occurred due to air compression when winds from opposing directions collided. This perspective was shared, for instance, by Hadge Hamilton (1729–1805) from Dublin in 1765, Peter von Muschenbrock (1692–1761), and Jean Andre de Luc (1727–1817) in his work .. However, an opposing group of scientists proposed that the formation of clouds and raindrops required a process of air-spirit thinning. Edmond Halley (1656–1742) was among the early advocates of such views, as evident in his work published in 1693. The concept of dilution and condensation, which
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,Auxiliary Tools in Meteorology, |
Mladjen Ćurić,Vlado Spiridonov |
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Abstract
Meteorological instruments yield a vast amount of data that requires processing to be effectively utilized by meteorologists. Various calculations are employed, including conversions between different measurement scales used in different countries. Temperature, for instance, has long been measured using the Celsius, Rheomir, and Fahrenheit scales. Adjustments are made to ensure accuracy. Additionally, certain meteorological quantities are derived through calculations based on other measured variables. For example, water vapor pressure is determined based on dry and wet temperatures. To handle the growing computational demands, meteorologists turned to computing devices already established in the field of astronomy. In the late nineteenth century, the development of tables specifically designed for meteorological data reduction emerged as valuable computing resources. Notably, in 1852, Arnold Jiat compiled a comprehensive volume titled ., consisting of 331 pages. Subsequent editions, including the 1884 fourth edition depicted in Fig. ., expanded to 700 pages. These tables remained in use throughout the twentieth century and continue to be utilized in various countries in the twenty-
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,Development of Modern Meteorology, |
Mladjen Ćurić,Vlado Spiridonov |
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Abstract
Modern meteorology relies on a wide array of sophisticated and expensive technical instruments that are utilized daily. Just as thermometers and barometers served as fundamental measuring tools during the emergence of quantitative meteorology in the seventeenth century, today’s basic instruments include meteorological radars and satellites. The advent of the first meteorological radar took place in 1942, followed by the launch of the initial meteorological satellite in 1960. A radar is an electronic device that emits narrow beams of short radio wave pulses (electromagnetic waves). It operates on the well-known Doppler effect, a principle discovered by Austrian scientist Christian Doppler in 1842. Radars incorporating this technology are known as Doppler radars and provide valuable information on wind speed in addition to the data. Nowadays, Doppler radars are predominantly used instead of conventional radars. Notable figures in radar meteorology development include David Atlas (1924–2015), Louis Joseph Battan (1923–1986), and Marshall. LIDAR (light detection and ranging) is another remote measurement device extensively employed in meteorology. It emits laser light at ultraviolet, v
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Back Matter |
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Abstract
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发表于 2025-3-21 18:28:30
