Titlebook: Aeronomy of Mars; S. A. Haider Book 2023 Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2023 Mars Upper Ionosphere.Modeling the Martian atmosphere.Ion

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https://doi.org/10.1007/0-387-33431-9ctrometer (NIMS), (3) Mars Exospheric Neutral Composition Analyser (MENCA) (4) Retarding Potential Analyzer (RPA), (5) Langmuir Probe and Electric Field Instrument (LPEFI), and (6) Mars Advanced Radar for Subsurface and Ionospheric Sounding (MARSIS). In brief these instruments are described below.

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https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-5541-7on. The relative importance of each loss process depends on the planets escape velocity, its atmospheric composition and its distance from the sun. The escape occurs when molecular kinetic energy over comes gravitational energy. In other words a molecule can escape when it is moving faster than the escape velocity of its planet.

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Foundation of Ionospheric Theory,polar diffusion, eddy diffusion and thermal energy balance. Using these equations the ion densities, electron densities and temperature structures can be studied in the lower and upper ionosphere of Mars.

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Atmospheric Escape from Mars,on. The relative importance of each loss process depends on the planets escape velocity, its atmospheric composition and its distance from the sun. The escape occurs when molecular kinetic energy over comes gravitational energy. In other words a molecule can escape when it is moving faster than the escape velocity of its planet.

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https://doi.org/10.1007/0-387-33431-9Mars’ upper atmosphere has been observed by Mariners 6, 7, 9; Mars 2, 3, 4, 5; Viking 1 and 2, MGS, MEX, MAVEN, Mangalyaan, EMM, and ExoMars but there have been very few measurements in the lower atmosphere of Mars. Brief descriptions of these missions are given below.

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